diff --git a/.github/workflows/style.yaml b/.github/workflows/style.yaml
index ddfd29c01..2f3d80ff5 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/style.yaml
+++ b/.github/workflows/style.yaml
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ jobs:
     - name: List pip dependencies
       run: pip list
     - name: Run pyupgrade checks
-      run: pyupgrade --py39-plus $(find . -path ./docs/src -prune -o -name "*.py" -print)
+      run: pyupgrade --py310-plus $(find . -path ./docs/src -prune -o -name "*.py" -print)
 concurrency:
   group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.pull_request.head.label || github.head_ref || github.ref }}
   cancel-in-progress: true
diff --git a/.github/workflows/tests.yaml b/.github/workflows/tests.yaml
index 5c64023eb..98be90158 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/tests.yaml
+++ b/.github/workflows/tests.yaml
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ jobs:
     strategy:
       matrix:
         os: [ubuntu-latest, macos-latest, windows-latest]
-        python-version: ['3.9', '3.10', '3.11', '3.12']
+        python-version: ['3.10', '3.11', '3.12']
     steps:
     - name: Clone repo
       uses: actions/checkout@v4.1.2
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ jobs:
     - name: Set up python
       uses: actions/setup-python@v5.1.0
       with:
-        python-version: '3.9'
+        python-version: '3.10'
     - name: Cache dependencies
       uses: actions/cache@v4.0.2
       id: cache
diff --git a/.pre-commit-config.yaml b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
index 664e66bc8..44fca1327 100644
--- a/.pre-commit-config.yaml
+++ b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ repos:
         rev: v3.15.2
         hooks:
         -   id: pyupgrade
-            args: [--py39-plus]
+            args: [--py310-plus]
 
     -   repo: https://github.com/pycqa/isort
         rev: 5.13.2
diff --git a/docs/user/contributing.rst b/docs/user/contributing.rst
index 50e4d2515..7e1263478 100644
--- a/docs/user/contributing.rst
+++ b/docs/user/contributing.rst
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ All of these tools should be used from the root of the project to ensure that ou
 
    $ black .
    $ isort .
-   $ pyupgrade --py39-plus $(find . -name "*.py")
+   $ pyupgrade --py310-plus $(find . -name "*.py")
 
 
 Flake8, pydocstyle, and mypy won't format your code for you, but they will warn you about potential issues with your code or docstrings:
diff --git a/experiments/ssl4eo/download_ssl4eo.py b/experiments/ssl4eo/download_ssl4eo.py
index 7389dbf24..3ca4fa71c 100755
--- a/experiments/ssl4eo/download_ssl4eo.py
+++ b/experiments/ssl4eo/download_ssl4eo.py
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ import warnings
 from collections import defaultdict
 from datetime import date, timedelta
 from multiprocessing.dummy import Lock, Pool
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import ee
 import numpy as np
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ def get_patch(
     new_resolutions: list[int],
     dtype: str = "float32",
     meta_cloud_name: str = "CLOUD_COVER",
-    default_value: Optional[float] = None,
+    default_value: float | None = None,
 ) -> dict[str, Any]:
     image = collection.sort(meta_cloud_name).first()
     region = ee.Geometry.Point(center_coord).buffer(radius).bounds()
@@ -214,7 +214,7 @@ def get_random_patches_match(
     new_resolutions: list[int],
     dtype: str,
     meta_cloud_name: str,
-    default_value: Optional[float],
+    default_value: float | None,
     dates: list[date],
     radius: float,
     debug: bool = False,
diff --git a/pyproject.toml b/pyproject.toml
index 350d9273b..7c8f87260 100644
--- a/pyproject.toml
+++ b/pyproject.toml
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ build-backend = "setuptools.build_meta"
 name = "torchgeo"
 description = "TorchGeo: datasets, samplers, transforms, and pre-trained models for geospatial data"
 readme = "README.md"
-requires-python = ">=3.9"
+requires-python = ">=3.10"
 license = {file = "LICENSE"}
 authors = [
     {name = "Adam J. Stewart", email = "ajstewart426@gmail.com"},
@@ -29,7 +29,6 @@ classifiers = [
     "License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License",
     "Operating System :: OS Independent",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3",
-    "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.9",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.10",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.11",
     "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.12",
@@ -39,9 +38,8 @@ classifiers = [
 dependencies = [
     # einops 0.3+ required for einops.repeat
     "einops>=0.3",
-    # fiona 1.8.19+ required to fix erroneous warning
-    # https://github.com/Toblerity/Fiona/issues/986
-    "fiona>=1.8.19",
+    # fiona 1.8.21+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "fiona>=1.8.21",
     # kornia 0.6.9+ required for kornia.augmentation.RandomBrightness
     "kornia>=0.6.9",
     # lightly 1.4.4+ required for MoCo v3 support
@@ -50,24 +48,24 @@ dependencies = [
     "lightly>=1.4.4,!=1.4.26",
     # lightning 2+ required for LightningCLI args + sys.argv support
     "lightning[pytorch-extra]>=2",
-    # matplotlib 3.3.3+ required for Python 3.9 wheels
-    "matplotlib>=3.3.3",
-    # numpy 1.19.3+ required by Python 3.9 wheels
-    "numpy>=1.19.3",
-    # pandas 1.1.3+ required for Python 3.9 wheels
-    "pandas>=1.1.3",
-    # pillow 8+ required for Python 3.9 wheels
-    "pillow>=8",
-    # pyproj 3+ required for Python 3.9 wheels
-    "pyproj>=3",
-    # rasterio 1.2+ required for Python 3.9 wheels
-    "rasterio>=1.2",
-    # rtree 1+ required for len(index), index & index, index | index
+    # matplotlib 3.5+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "matplotlib>=3.5",
+    # numpy 1.21.2+ required by Python 3.10 wheels
+    "numpy>=1.21.2",
+    # pandas 1.3.3+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "pandas>=1.3.3",
+    # pillow 8.4+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "pillow>=8.4",
+    # pyproj 3.3+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "pyproj>=3.3",
+    # rasterio 1.3+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "rasterio>=1.3",
+    # rtree 1+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
     "rtree>=1",
     # segmentation-models-pytorch 0.2+ required for smp.losses module
     "segmentation-models-pytorch>=0.2",
-    # shapely 1.7.1+ required for Python 3.9 wheels
-    "shapely>=1.7.1",
+    # shapely 1.8+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "shapely>=1.8",
     # timm 0.4.12 required by segmentation-models-pytorch
     "timm>=0.4.12",
     # torch 1.13+ required by torchvision
@@ -81,27 +79,25 @@ dynamic = ["version"]
 
 [project.optional-dependencies]
 datasets = [
-    # h5py 3+ required for Python 3.9 wheels
-    "h5py>=3",
+    # h5py 3.6+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "h5py>=3.6",
     # laspy 2+ required for laspy.read
     "laspy>=2",
-    # opencv-python 4.4.0.46+ required for Python 3.9 wheels
-    "opencv-python>=4.4.0.46",
-    # pycocotools 2.0.5+ required for cython 3+ support
-    "pycocotools>=2.0.5",
+    # opencv-python 4.5.4+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "opencv-python>=4.5.4",
+    # pycocotools 2.0.7+ required for wheels
+    "pycocotools>=2.0.7",
     # pyvista 0.34.2+ required to avoid ImportError in CI
     "pyvista>=0.34.2",
     # radiant-mlhub 0.3+ required for newer tqdm support required by lightning
     "radiant-mlhub>=0.3",
     # rarfile 4+ required for wheels
     "rarfile>=4",
-    # scikit-image 0.18+ required for numpy 1.17+ compatibility
-    # https://github.com/scikit-image/scikit-image/issues/3655
-    "scikit-image>=0.18",
-    # scipy 1.6.2+ required for scikit-image 0.18+ compatibility
-    "scipy>=1.6.2",
-    # zipfile-deflate64 0.2+ required for extraction bugfix:
-    # https://github.com/brianhelba/zipfile-deflate64/issues/19
+    # scikit-image 0.19+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "scikit-image>=0.19",
+    # scipy 1.7.2+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
+    "scipy>=1.7.2",
+    # zipfile-deflate64 0.2+ required for Python 3.10 wheels
     "zipfile-deflate64>=0.2",
 ]
 docs = [
@@ -126,7 +122,7 @@ style = [
     "isort[colors]>=5.8",
     # pydocstyle 6.1+ required for pyproject.toml support
     "pydocstyle[toml]>=6.1",
-    # pyupgrade 2.8+ required for --py39-plus flag
+    # pyupgrade 2.8+ required for --py310-plus flag
     "pyupgrade>=2.8",
 ]
 tests = [
@@ -151,7 +147,7 @@ Homepage = "https://github.com/microsoft/torchgeo"
 Documentation = "https://torchgeo.readthedocs.io"
 
 [tool.black]
-target-version = ["py39", "py310"]
+target-version = ["py310"]
 color = true
 skip_magic_trailing_comma = true
 
@@ -170,7 +166,7 @@ skip_gitignore = true
 color_output = true
 
 [tool.mypy]
-python_version = "3.9"
+python_version = "3.10"
 ignore_missing_imports = true
 show_error_codes = true
 exclude = "(build|data|dist|docs/src|images|logo|logs|output)/"
diff --git a/requirements/min-reqs.old b/requirements/min-reqs.old
index 34b22649c..8889520d1 100644
--- a/requirements/min-reqs.old
+++ b/requirements/min-reqs.old
@@ -3,34 +3,34 @@ setuptools==61.0.0
 
 # install
 einops==0.3.0
-fiona==1.8.19
+fiona==1.8.21
 kornia==0.6.9
 lightly==1.4.4
 lightning[pytorch-extra]==2.0.0
-matplotlib==3.3.3
-numpy==1.19.3
-pandas==1.1.3
-pillow==8.0.0
-pyproj==3.0.0
-rasterio==1.2.0
+matplotlib==3.5.0
+numpy==1.21.2
+pandas==1.3.3
+pillow==8.4.0
+pyproj==3.3.0
+rasterio==1.3.0.post1
 rtree==1.0.0
 segmentation-models-pytorch==0.2.0
-shapely==1.7.1
+shapely==1.8.0
 timm==0.4.12
 torch==1.13.0
 torchmetrics==0.10.0
 torchvision==0.14.0
 
 # datasets
-h5py==3.0.0
+h5py==3.6.0
 laspy==2.0.0
-opencv-python==4.4.0.46
-pycocotools==2.0.5
+opencv-python==4.5.4.58
+pycocotools==2.0.7
 pyvista==0.34.2
 radiant-mlhub==0.3.0
 rarfile==4.0
-scikit-image==0.18.0
-scipy==1.6.2
+scikit-image==0.19.0
+scipy==1.7.2
 zipfile-deflate64==0.2.0
 
 # docs
diff --git a/tests/data/raster/data.py b/tests/data/raster/data.py
index 517649607..304c9f96f 100755
--- a/tests/data/raster/data.py
+++ b/tests/data/raster/data.py
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 # Licensed under the MIT License.
 
 import os
-from typing import Optional
 
 import numpy as np
 import rasterio as rio
@@ -18,7 +17,7 @@ def write_raster(
     res: int = RES[0],
     epsg: int = EPSG[0],
     dtype: str = "uint8",
-    path: Optional[str] = None,
+    path: str | None = None,
 ) -> None:
     """Write a raster file.
 
diff --git a/tests/datasets/test_geo.py b/tests/datasets/test_geo.py
index 8af3333a8..c98f010c5 100644
--- a/tests/datasets/test_geo.py
+++ b/tests/datasets/test_geo.py
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@ import pickle
 import sys
 from collections.abc import Iterable
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Optional, Union
 
 import pytest
 import torch
@@ -35,7 +34,7 @@ class CustomGeoDataset(GeoDataset):
         bounds: BoundingBox = BoundingBox(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5),
         crs: CRS = CRS.from_epsg(4087),
         res: float = 1,
-        paths: Optional[Union[str, Iterable[str]]] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         super().__init__()
         self.index.insert(0, tuple(bounds))
@@ -249,7 +248,7 @@ class TestRasterDataset:
             },
         ],
     )
-    def test_files(self, paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]]) -> None:
+    def test_files(self, paths: str | Iterable[str]) -> None:
         assert 1 <= len(NAIP(paths).files) <= 2
 
     def test_getitem_single_file(self, naip: NAIP) -> None:
diff --git a/tests/datasets/test_splits.py b/tests/datasets/test_splits.py
index f2f75b566..11f5838e1 100644
--- a/tests/datasets/test_splits.py
+++ b/tests/datasets/test_splits.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 from collections.abc import Sequence
 from math import floor, isclose
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import pytest
 from rasterio.crs import CRS
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ class CustomGeoDataset(GeoDataset):
     ],
 )
 def test_random_bbox_assignment(
-    lengths: Sequence[Union[int, float]], expected_lengths: Sequence[int]
+    lengths: Sequence[int | float], expected_lengths: Sequence[int]
 ) -> None:
     ds = CustomGeoDataset(
         [
@@ -255,8 +255,7 @@ def test_roi_split() -> None:
     ],
 )
 def test_time_series_split(
-    lengths: Sequence[Union[tuple[int, int], int, float]],
-    expected_lengths: Sequence[int],
+    lengths: Sequence[tuple[int, int] | int | float], expected_lengths: Sequence[int]
 ) -> None:
     ds = CustomGeoDataset(
         [
diff --git a/tests/models/test_api.py b/tests/models/test_api.py
index fca5261cc..18d1f1a80 100644
--- a/tests/models/test_api.py
+++ b/tests/models/test_api.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 # Licensed under the MIT License.
 
 import enum
-from typing import Callable
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import pytest
 import torch.nn as nn
diff --git a/tests/samplers/test_utils.py b/tests/samplers/test_utils.py
index 20d828827..8480fc5cf 100644
--- a/tests/samplers/test_utils.py
+++ b/tests/samplers/test_utils.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 # Licensed under the MIT License.
 
 import math
-from typing import Optional, Union
+from typing import Union
 
 import pytest
 
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ MAYBE_TUPLE = Union[float, tuple[float, float]]
     ],
 )
 def test_tile_to_chips(
-    size: MAYBE_TUPLE, stride: Optional[MAYBE_TUPLE], expected: MAYBE_TUPLE
+    size: MAYBE_TUPLE, stride: MAYBE_TUPLE | None, expected: MAYBE_TUPLE
 ) -> None:
     bounds = BoundingBox(0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50)
     size = _to_tuple(size)
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/agrifieldnet.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/agrifieldnet.py
index f7b27d252..fb485eec9 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/agrifieldnet.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/agrifieldnet.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """AgriFieldNet datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -25,8 +25,8 @@ class AgriFieldNetDataModule(GeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 256,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 256,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/chesapeake.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/chesapeake.py
index 604c0d7e3..7c1d3846b 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/chesapeake.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/chesapeake.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Chesapeake Bay High-Resolution Land Cover Project datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch.nn as nn
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ class ChesapeakeCVPRDataModule(GeoDataModule):
         test_splits: list[str],
         batch_size: int = 64,
         patch_size: int = 256,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         class_set: int = 7,
         use_prior_labels: bool = False,
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/deepglobelandcover.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/deepglobelandcover.py
index 3bfa594a2..2195aca3f 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/deepglobelandcover.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/deepglobelandcover.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """DeepGlobe Land Cover Classification Challenge datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ class DeepGlobeLandCoverDataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 64,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 64,
         val_split_pct: float = 0.2,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/geo.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/geo.py
index 96da7683b..06d09b37f 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/geo.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/geo.py
@@ -3,7 +3,8 @@
 
 """Base classes for all :mod:`torchgeo` data modules."""
 
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -55,27 +56,27 @@ class BaseDataModule(LightningDataModule):
         self.kwargs = kwargs
 
         # Datasets
-        self.dataset: Optional[Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]]] = None
-        self.train_dataset: Optional[Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]]] = None
-        self.val_dataset: Optional[Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]]] = None
-        self.test_dataset: Optional[Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]]] = None
-        self.predict_dataset: Optional[Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]]] = None
+        self.dataset: Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None
+        self.train_dataset: Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None
+        self.val_dataset: Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None
+        self.test_dataset: Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None
+        self.predict_dataset: Dataset[dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None
 
         # Data loaders
-        self.train_batch_size: Optional[int] = None
-        self.val_batch_size: Optional[int] = None
-        self.test_batch_size: Optional[int] = None
-        self.predict_batch_size: Optional[int] = None
+        self.train_batch_size: int | None = None
+        self.val_batch_size: int | None = None
+        self.test_batch_size: int | None = None
+        self.predict_batch_size: int | None = None
 
         # Data augmentation
         Transform = Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]
         self.aug: Transform = AugmentationSequential(
             K.Normalize(mean=self.mean, std=self.std), data_keys=["image"]
         )
-        self.train_aug: Optional[Transform] = None
-        self.val_aug: Optional[Transform] = None
-        self.test_aug: Optional[Transform] = None
-        self.predict_aug: Optional[Transform] = None
+        self.train_aug: Transform | None = None
+        self.val_aug: Transform | None = None
+        self.test_aug: Transform | None = None
+        self.predict_aug: Transform | None = None
 
     def prepare_data(self) -> None:
         """Download and prepare data.
@@ -141,7 +142,7 @@ class BaseDataModule(LightningDataModule):
 
         return batch
 
-    def plot(self, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> Optional[Figure]:
+    def plot(self, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> Figure | None:
         """Run the plot method of the validation dataset if one exists.
 
         Should only be called during 'fit' or 'validate' stages as ``val_dataset``
@@ -154,7 +155,7 @@ class BaseDataModule(LightningDataModule):
         Returns:
             A matplotlib Figure with the image, ground truth, and predictions.
         """
-        fig: Optional[Figure] = None
+        fig: Figure | None = None
         dataset = self.dataset or self.val_dataset
         if dataset is not None:
             if hasattr(dataset, "plot"):
@@ -172,8 +173,8 @@ class GeoDataModule(BaseDataModule):
         self,
         dataset_class: type[GeoDataset],
         batch_size: int = 1,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 64,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 64,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
@@ -196,18 +197,18 @@ class GeoDataModule(BaseDataModule):
         self.collate_fn = stack_samples
 
         # Samplers
-        self.sampler: Optional[GeoSampler] = None
-        self.train_sampler: Optional[GeoSampler] = None
-        self.val_sampler: Optional[GeoSampler] = None
-        self.test_sampler: Optional[GeoSampler] = None
-        self.predict_sampler: Optional[GeoSampler] = None
+        self.sampler: GeoSampler | None = None
+        self.train_sampler: GeoSampler | None = None
+        self.val_sampler: GeoSampler | None = None
+        self.test_sampler: GeoSampler | None = None
+        self.predict_sampler: GeoSampler | None = None
 
         # Batch samplers
-        self.batch_sampler: Optional[BatchGeoSampler] = None
-        self.train_batch_sampler: Optional[BatchGeoSampler] = None
-        self.val_batch_sampler: Optional[BatchGeoSampler] = None
-        self.test_batch_sampler: Optional[BatchGeoSampler] = None
-        self.predict_batch_sampler: Optional[BatchGeoSampler] = None
+        self.batch_sampler: BatchGeoSampler | None = None
+        self.train_batch_sampler: BatchGeoSampler | None = None
+        self.val_batch_sampler: BatchGeoSampler | None = None
+        self.test_batch_sampler: BatchGeoSampler | None = None
+        self.predict_batch_sampler: BatchGeoSampler | None = None
 
     def setup(self, stage: str) -> None:
         """Set up datasets and samplers.
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/gid15.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/gid15.py
index 8a40bddb0..9f6b2f5da 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/gid15.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/gid15.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """GID-15 datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class GID15DataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 64,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 64,
         val_split_pct: float = 0.2,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/inria.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/inria.py
index ca46c39dc..c8489441f 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/inria.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/inria.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """InriaAerialImageLabeling datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class InriaAerialImageLabelingDataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 64,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 64,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/l7irish.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/l7irish.py
index dbc6dddeb..82a6f10d9 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/l7irish.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/l7irish.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """L7 Irish datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -25,8 +25,8 @@ class L7IrishDataModule(GeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 1,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 224,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 224,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/l8biome.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/l8biome.py
index f372aba05..7201e69d1 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/l8biome.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/l8biome.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """L8 Biome datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -25,8 +25,8 @@ class L8BiomeDataModule(GeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 1,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 224,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 224,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/levircd.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/levircd.py
index 411717fed..2107928d4 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/levircd.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/levircd.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """LEVIR-CD+ datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ class LEVIRCDDataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 8,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 256,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 256,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ class LEVIRCDPlusDataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 8,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 256,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 256,
         val_split_pct: float = 0.2,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/naip.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/naip.py
index 1631734d0..5fb24a43a 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/naip.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/naip.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -23,8 +23,8 @@ class NAIPChesapeakeDataModule(GeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 256,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 256,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/oscd.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/oscd.py
index 19f346770..61c5ca9aa 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/oscd.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/oscd.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """OSCD datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ class OSCDDataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 64,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 64,
         val_split_pct: float = 0.2,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/potsdam.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/potsdam.py
index 0bd712d46..397ef25d7 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/potsdam.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/potsdam.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Potsdam datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class Potsdam2DDataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 64,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 64,
         val_split_pct: float = 0.2,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_cdl.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_cdl.py
index b7315cb98..b219d7315 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_cdl.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_cdl.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Sentinel-2 and CDL datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@ class Sentinel2CDLDataModule(GeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 64,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 64,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_nccm.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_nccm.py
index feabdb4f6..952bc2812 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_nccm.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_nccm.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Sentinel-2 and NCCM datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@ class Sentinel2NCCMDataModule(GeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 64,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 64,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_south_america_soybean.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_south_america_soybean.py
index 6ce54000c..fee2b5c64 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_south_america_soybean.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/sentinel2_south_america_soybean.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 """South America Soybean datamodule."""
 
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -28,8 +28,8 @@ class Sentinel2SouthAmericaSoybeanDataModule(GeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 64,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 64,
+        length: int | None = None,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/ssl4eo_benchmark.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/ssl4eo_benchmark.py
index f02bbda6d..d1b9d5184 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/ssl4eo_benchmark.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/ssl4eo_benchmark.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """SSL4EO datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 from kornia.constants import DataKey, Resample
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ class SSL4EOLBenchmarkDataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]] = 224,
+        patch_size: int | tuple[int, int] = 224,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/utils.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/utils.py
index 7083012f8..a6069250d 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/utils.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/utils.py
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 """Common datamodule utilities."""
 
 import math
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import numpy as np
 import torch
@@ -103,9 +103,9 @@ def collate_fn_detection(batch: list[dict[str, Tensor]]) -> dict[str, Any]:
 
 
 def dataset_split(
-    dataset: Union[TensorDataset, NonGeoDataset],
+    dataset: TensorDataset | NonGeoDataset,
     val_pct: float,
-    test_pct: Optional[float] = None,
+    test_pct: float | None = None,
 ) -> list[Subset[Any]]:
     """Split a torch Dataset into train/val/test sets.
 
@@ -142,9 +142,9 @@ def dataset_split(
 
 def group_shuffle_split(
     groups: Iterable[Any],
-    train_size: Optional[float] = None,
-    test_size: Optional[float] = None,
-    random_state: Optional[int] = None,
+    train_size: float | None = None,
+    test_size: float | None = None,
+    random_state: int | None = None,
 ) -> tuple[list[int], list[int]]:
     """Method for performing a single group-wise shuffle split of data.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/vaihingen.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/vaihingen.py
index 883ff7781..441fafdd9 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/vaihingen.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/vaihingen.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Vaihingen datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class Vaihingen2DDataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 64,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 64,
         val_split_pct: float = 0.2,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         **kwargs: Any,
diff --git a/torchgeo/datamodules/vhr10.py b/torchgeo/datamodules/vhr10.py
index 0059d6c71..0bafef71b 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datamodules/vhr10.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datamodules/vhr10.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """NWPU VHR-10 datamodule."""
 
-from typing import Any, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class VHR10DataModule(NonGeoDataModule):
     def __init__(
         self,
         batch_size: int = 64,
-        patch_size: Union[tuple[int, int], int] = 512,
+        patch_size: tuple[int, int] | int = 512,
         num_workers: int = 0,
         val_split_pct: float = 0.2,
         test_split_pct: float = 0.2,
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/advance.py b/torchgeo/datasets/advance.py
index 3618db0fa..139bba0f4 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/advance.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/advance.py
@@ -5,7 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -87,7 +88,7 @@ class ADVANCE(NonGeoDataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -228,7 +229,7 @@ class ADVANCE(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/agb_live_woody_density.py b/torchgeo/datasets/agb_live_woody_density.py
index 6c5959a06..b12da8f50 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/agb_live_woody_density.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/agb_live_woody_density.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import json
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -56,10 +56,10 @@ class AbovegroundLiveWoodyBiomassDensity(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         cache: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ class AbovegroundLiveWoodyBiomassDensity(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/agrifieldnet.py b/torchgeo/datasets/agrifieldnet.py
index 67a0c994f..3f4ceffd3 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/agrifieldnet.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/agrifieldnet.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import os
 import re
-from collections.abc import Iterable, Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Sequence
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -113,11 +113,11 @@ class AgriFieldNet(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
         classes: list[int] = list(cmap.keys()),
         bands: Sequence[str] = all_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new AgriFieldNet dataset instance.
@@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ class AgriFieldNet(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/airphen.py b/torchgeo/datasets/airphen.py
index 8a2a73b8b..a38db917a 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/airphen.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/airphen.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Airphen dataset."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ class Airphen(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/astergdem.py b/torchgeo/datasets/astergdem.py
index 99215f774..801b24a52 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/astergdem.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/astergdem.py
@@ -3,7 +3,8 @@
 
 """Aster Global Digital Elevation Model dataset."""
 
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -46,10 +47,10 @@ class AsterGDEM(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, list[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        paths: str | list[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Dataset instance.
@@ -89,7 +90,7 @@ class AsterGDEM(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/benin_cashews.py b/torchgeo/datasets/benin_cashews.py
index 6b9f95d34..0aefc55d7 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/benin_cashews.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/benin_cashews.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import json
 import os
+from collections.abc import Callable
 from functools import lru_cache
-from typing import Callable, Optional
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -182,9 +182,9 @@ class BeninSmallHolderCashews(NonGeoDataset):
         chip_size: int = 256,
         stride: int = 128,
         bands: tuple[str, ...] = all_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
         verbose: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -408,7 +408,7 @@ class BeninSmallHolderCashews(NonGeoDataset):
 
         return images and targets
 
-    def _download(self, api_key: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+    def _download(self, api_key: str | None = None) -> None:
         """Download the dataset and extract it.
 
         Args:
@@ -434,7 +434,7 @@ class BeninSmallHolderCashews(NonGeoDataset):
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
         time_step: int = 0,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/bigearthnet.py b/torchgeo/datasets/bigearthnet.py
index 229c546ff..3b92343d9 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/bigearthnet.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/bigearthnet.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 import glob
 import json
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -275,7 +275,7 @@ class BigEarthNet(NonGeoDataset):
         split: str = "train",
         bands: str = "all",
         num_classes: int = 19,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -533,7 +533,7 @@ class BigEarthNet(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/biomassters.py b/torchgeo/datasets/biomassters.py
index 970c55949..4b73f58e8 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/biomassters.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/biomassters.py
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@
 
 import os
 from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Optional
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -219,7 +218,7 @@ class BioMassters(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/cbf.py b/torchgeo/datasets/cbf.py
index d3010e44d..63b76e592 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/cbf.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/cbf.py
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 """Canadian Building Footprints dataset."""
 
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -61,10 +61,10 @@ class CanadianBuildingFootprints(VectorDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
         res: float = 0.00001,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ class CanadianBuildingFootprints(VectorDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/cdl.py b/torchgeo/datasets/cdl.py
index d0b9eb43a..87ebc9029 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/cdl.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/cdl.py
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 """CDL dataset."""
 
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -206,12 +206,12 @@ class CDL(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
         years: list[int] = [2023],
         classes: list[int] = list(cmap.keys()),
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -336,7 +336,7 @@ class CDL(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/chabud.py b/torchgeo/datasets/chabud.py
index febed7031..21362bb9f 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/chabud.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/chabud.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """ChaBuD dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ class ChaBuD(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         bands: list[str] = all_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -235,7 +235,7 @@ class ChaBuD(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/chesapeake.py b/torchgeo/datasets/chesapeake.py
index f92d1e21d..a0509302e 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/chesapeake.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/chesapeake.py
@@ -6,8 +6,8 @@
 import abc
 import os
 import sys
-from collections.abc import Iterable, Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Sequence
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import fiona
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -90,10 +90,10 @@ class Chesapeake(RasterDataset, abc.ABC):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -170,7 +170,7 @@ class Chesapeake(RasterDataset, abc.ABC):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
@@ -512,7 +512,7 @@ class ChesapeakeCVPR(GeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         splits: Sequence[str] = ["de-train"],
         layers: Sequence[str] = ["naip-new", "lc"],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -711,7 +711,7 @@ class ChesapeakeCVPR(GeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/cloud_cover.py b/torchgeo/datasets/cloud_cover.py
index 60bbe78e2..fbe9e9e32 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/cloud_cover.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/cloud_cover.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import json
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -111,9 +111,9 @@ class CloudCoverDetection(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         bands: Sequence[str] = band_names,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initiatlize a new Cloud Cover Detection Dataset instance.
@@ -329,7 +329,7 @@ class CloudCoverDetection(NonGeoDataset):
 
         return images and targets
 
-    def _download(self, api_key: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+    def _download(self, api_key: str | None = None) -> None:
         """Download the dataset and extract it.
 
         Args:
@@ -355,7 +355,7 @@ class CloudCoverDetection(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/cms_mangrove_canopy.py b/torchgeo/datasets/cms_mangrove_canopy.py
index ac42c8d1e..8f2a53dfb 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/cms_mangrove_canopy.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/cms_mangrove_canopy.py
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 """CMS Global Mangrove Canopy dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -167,12 +168,12 @@ class CMSGlobalMangroveCanopy(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, list[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
+        paths: str | list[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
         measurement: str = "agb",
         country: str = all_countries[0],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -250,7 +251,7 @@ class CMSGlobalMangroveCanopy(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/cowc.py b/torchgeo/datasets/cowc.py
index 0e0518502..902cbdcb4 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/cowc.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/cowc.py
@@ -6,7 +6,8 @@
 import abc
 import csv
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -65,7 +66,7 @@ class COWC(NonGeoDataset, abc.ABC):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -192,7 +193,7 @@ class COWC(NonGeoDataset, abc.ABC):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/cropharvest.py b/torchgeo/datasets/cropharvest.py
index 08d69f2fc..e386ac92a 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/cropharvest.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/cropharvest.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 import glob
 import json
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ class CropHarvest(NonGeoDataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ class CropHarvest(NonGeoDataset):
         features_path = os.path.join(self.root, self.file_dict["features"]["filename"])
         extract_archive(features_path)
 
-    def plot(self, sample: dict[str, Tensor], subtitle: Optional[str] = None) -> Figure:
+    def plot(self, sample: dict[str, Tensor], subtitle: str | None = None) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset using bands for Agriculture RGB composite.
 
         Args:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/cv4a_kenya_crop_type.py b/torchgeo/datasets/cv4a_kenya_crop_type.py
index 0ea981d8a..dc4d97e2a 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/cv4a_kenya_crop_type.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/cv4a_kenya_crop_type.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import csv
 import os
+from collections.abc import Callable
 from functools import lru_cache
-from typing import Callable, Optional
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -125,9 +125,9 @@ class CV4AKenyaCropType(NonGeoDataset):
         chip_size: int = 256,
         stride: int = 128,
         bands: tuple[str, ...] = band_names,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
         verbose: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -388,7 +388,7 @@ class CV4AKenyaCropType(NonGeoDataset):
 
         return train_field_ids, test_field_ids
 
-    def _download(self, api_key: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+    def _download(self, api_key: str | None = None) -> None:
         """Download the dataset and extract it.
 
         Args:
@@ -411,7 +411,7 @@ class CV4AKenyaCropType(NonGeoDataset):
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
         time_step: int = 0,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/cyclone.py b/torchgeo/datasets/cyclone.py
index 6ab5a14c9..46f2e9d6f 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/cyclone.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/cyclone.py
@@ -5,8 +5,9 @@
 
 import json
 import os
+from collections.abc import Callable
 from functools import lru_cache
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -73,9 +74,9 @@ class TropicalCyclone(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Tropical Cyclone Wind Estimation Competition Dataset.
@@ -204,7 +205,7 @@ class TropicalCyclone(NonGeoDataset):
                     return False
         return True
 
-    def _download(self, api_key: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+    def _download(self, api_key: str | None = None) -> None:
         """Download the dataset and extract it.
 
         Args:
@@ -227,7 +228,7 @@ class TropicalCyclone(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/deepglobelandcover.py b/torchgeo/datasets/deepglobelandcover.py
index c265321a3..03b9a91ff 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/deepglobelandcover.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/deepglobelandcover.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """DeepGlobe Land Cover Classification Challenge dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ class DeepGlobeLandCover(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new DeepGlobeLandCover dataset instance.
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ class DeepGlobeLandCover(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
         alpha: float = 0.5,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/dfc2022.py b/torchgeo/datasets/dfc2022.py
index 5268ea4f0..40e0ad9b6 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/dfc2022.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/dfc2022.py
@@ -5,8 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -144,7 +143,7 @@ class DFC2022(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new DFC2022 dataset instance.
@@ -229,7 +228,7 @@ class DFC2022(NonGeoDataset):
 
         return files
 
-    def _load_image(self, path: str, shape: Optional[Sequence[int]] = None) -> Tensor:
+    def _load_image(self, path: str, shape: Sequence[int] | None = None) -> Tensor:
         """Load a single image.
 
         Args:
@@ -296,7 +295,7 @@ class DFC2022(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/enviroatlas.py b/torchgeo/datasets/enviroatlas.py
index f6842738a..0518ffeb8 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/enviroatlas.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/enviroatlas.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import os
 import sys
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import fiona
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ class EnviroAtlas(GeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         splits: Sequence[str] = ["pittsburgh_pa-2010_1m-train"],
         layers: Sequence[str] = ["naip", "prior"],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         prior_as_input: bool = False,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
@@ -445,7 +445,7 @@ class EnviroAtlas(GeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/esri2020.py b/torchgeo/datasets/esri2020.py
index 2d26f2456..2238f6943 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/esri2020.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/esri2020.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -68,10 +68,10 @@ class Esri2020(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ class Esri2020(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/etci2021.py b/torchgeo/datasets/etci2021.py
index 7dfa50fb2..7dd9bf022 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/etci2021.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/etci2021.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ class ETCI2021(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ class ETCI2021(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/eudem.py b/torchgeo/datasets/eudem.py
index ce82500ee..15913aeed 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/eudem.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/eudem.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -83,10 +83,10 @@ class EUDEM(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ class EUDEM(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/eurocrops.py b/torchgeo/datasets/eurocrops.py
index ebfe19a76..b1cfa57b2 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/eurocrops.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/eurocrops.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import csv
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import fiona
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -88,11 +88,11 @@ class EuroCrops(VectorDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
         crs: CRS = CRS.from_epsg(4326),
         res: float = 0.00001,
-        classes: Optional[list[str]] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        classes: list[str] | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ class EuroCrops(VectorDataset):
                 self.base_url + fname, self.paths, md5=md5 if self.checksum else None
             )
 
-    def _load_class_map(self, classes: Optional[list[str]]) -> None:
+    def _load_class_map(self, classes: list[str] | None) -> None:
         """Load map from HCAT class codes to class indices.
 
         If classes is provided, then we simply use those codes. Otherwise, we load
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ class EuroCrops(VectorDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/eurosat.py b/torchgeo/datasets/eurosat.py
index 2802e6924..e7376310e 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/eurosat.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/eurosat.py
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 """EuroSAT dataset."""
 
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
+from typing import cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ class EuroSAT(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         bands: Sequence[str] = BAND_SETS["all"],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -247,7 +247,7 @@ class EuroSAT(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/fair1m.py b/torchgeo/datasets/fair1m.py
index 24cc7b97d..49b9349b3 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/fair1m.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/fair1m.py
@@ -5,7 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any, cast
 from xml.etree.ElementTree import Element, parse
 
 import matplotlib.patches as patches
@@ -230,7 +231,7 @@ class FAIR1M(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -382,7 +383,7 @@ class FAIR1M(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/fire_risk.py b/torchgeo/datasets/fire_risk.py
index d51a4384f..e10bbae8a 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/fire_risk.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/fire_risk.py
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 """FireRisk dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -68,7 +69,7 @@ class FireRisk(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -136,7 +137,7 @@ class FireRisk(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/forestdamage.py b/torchgeo/datasets/forestdamage.py
index b74f3bcd3..b20ab5296 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/forestdamage.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/forestdamage.py
@@ -5,7 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 from xml.etree import ElementTree
 
 import matplotlib.patches as patches
@@ -110,7 +111,7 @@ class ForestDamage(NonGeoDataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -259,7 +260,7 @@ class ForestDamage(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/geo.py b/torchgeo/datasets/geo.py
index 6aeb1699b..f175df463 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/geo.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/geo.py
@@ -10,8 +10,8 @@ import os
 import re
 import sys
 import warnings
-from collections.abc import Iterable, Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Sequence
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import fiona
 import fiona.transform
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ class GeoDataset(Dataset[dict[str, Any]], abc.ABC):
        dataset = landsat7 | landsat8
     """
 
-    paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]]
+    paths: str | Iterable[str]
     _crs = CRS.from_epsg(4326)
     _res = 0.0
 
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ class GeoDataset(Dataset[dict[str, Any]], abc.ABC):
     __add__ = None  # type: ignore[assignment]
 
     def __init__(
-        self, transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None
+        self, transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new GeoDataset instance.
 
@@ -190,9 +190,7 @@ class GeoDataset(Dataset[dict[str, Any]], abc.ABC):
     # NOTE: This hack should be removed once the following issue is fixed:
     # https://github.com/Toblerity/rtree/issues/87
 
-    def __getstate__(
-        self,
-    ) -> tuple[dict[str, Any], list[tuple[Any, Any, Optional[Any]]]]:
+    def __getstate__(self) -> tuple[dict[str, Any], list[tuple[Any, Any, Any | None]]]:
         """Define how instances are pickled.
 
         Returns:
@@ -388,11 +386,11 @@ class RasterDataset(GeoDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
-        bands: Optional[Sequence[str]] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
+        bands: Sequence[str] | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new RasterDataset instance.
@@ -539,7 +537,7 @@ class RasterDataset(GeoDataset):
         self,
         filepaths: Sequence[str],
         query: BoundingBox,
-        band_indexes: Optional[Sequence[int]] = None,
+        band_indexes: Sequence[int] | None = None,
     ) -> Tensor:
         """Load and merge one or more files.
 
@@ -612,11 +610,11 @@ class VectorDataset(GeoDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
         res: float = 0.0001,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
-        label_name: Optional[str] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
+        label_name: str | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new VectorDataset instance.
 
@@ -809,9 +807,9 @@ class NonGeoClassificationDataset(NonGeoDataset, ImageFolder):  # type: ignore[m
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
-        loader: Optional[Callable[[str], Any]] = pil_loader,
-        is_valid_file: Optional[Callable[[str], bool]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
+        loader: Callable[[str], Any] | None = pil_loader,
+        is_valid_file: Callable[[str], bool] | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new NonGeoClassificationDataset instance.
 
@@ -909,7 +907,7 @@ class IntersectionDataset(GeoDataset):
         collate_fn: Callable[
             [Sequence[dict[str, Any]]], dict[str, Any]
         ] = concat_samples,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new IntersectionDataset instance.
 
@@ -1067,7 +1065,7 @@ class UnionDataset(GeoDataset):
         collate_fn: Callable[
             [Sequence[dict[str, Any]]], dict[str, Any]
         ] = merge_samples,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new UnionDataset instance.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/gid15.py b/torchgeo/datasets/gid15.py
index 6fc2b5201..fb7dd0459 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/gid15.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/gid15.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ class GID15(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -234,7 +234,7 @@ class GID15(NonGeoDataset):
             md5=self.md5 if self.checksum else None,
         )
 
-    def plot(self, sample: dict[str, Tensor], suptitle: Optional[str] = None) -> Figure:
+    def plot(self, sample: dict[str, Tensor], suptitle: str | None = None) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
         Args:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/globbiomass.py b/torchgeo/datasets/globbiomass.py
index c9da83b9b..6b5d1a07a 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/globbiomass.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/globbiomass.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -119,11 +119,11 @@ class GlobBiomass(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
         measurement: str = "agb",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -225,7 +225,7 @@ class GlobBiomass(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/idtrees.py b/torchgeo/datasets/idtrees.py
index 715c3bfed..4460bfc08 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/idtrees.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/idtrees.py
@@ -5,7 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, cast, overload
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any, cast, overload
 
 import fiona
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -148,7 +149,7 @@ class IDTReeS(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         task: str = "task1",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -333,7 +334,7 @@ class IDTReeS(NonGeoDataset):
 
     def _load(
         self, root: str
-    ) -> tuple[list[str], Optional[dict[int, dict[str, Any]]], Any]:
+    ) -> tuple[list[str], dict[int, dict[str, Any]] | None, Any]:
         """Load files, geometries, and labels.
 
         Args:
@@ -419,8 +420,8 @@ class IDTReeS(NonGeoDataset):
         image_size: tuple[int, int],
         min_size: int,
         boxes: Tensor,
-        labels: Optional[Tensor],
-    ) -> tuple[Tensor, Optional[Tensor]]:
+        labels: Tensor | None,
+    ) -> tuple[Tensor, Tensor | None]:
         """Clip boxes to image size and filter boxes with sides less than ``min_size``.
 
         Args:
@@ -477,7 +478,7 @@ class IDTReeS(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
         hsi_indices: tuple[int, int, int] = (0, 1, 2),
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/inria.py b/torchgeo/datasets/inria.py
index b3ab0a6fd..b42a005e5 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/inria.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/inria.py
@@ -6,7 +6,8 @@
 import glob
 import os
 import re
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -64,7 +65,7 @@ class InriaAerialImageLabeling(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new InriaAerialImageLabeling Dataset instance.
@@ -200,7 +201,7 @@ class InriaAerialImageLabeling(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/l7irish.py b/torchgeo/datasets/l7irish.py
index b2d87eade..7e12fe67d 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/l7irish.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/l7irish.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable, Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Sequence
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -97,11 +97,11 @@ class L7Irish(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = CRS.from_epsg(3857),
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = CRS.from_epsg(3857),
+        res: float | None = None,
         bands: Sequence[str] = all_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ class L7Irish(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/l8biome.py b/torchgeo/datasets/l8biome.py
index 88ef15592..f4fa80479 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/l8biome.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/l8biome.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable, Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Sequence
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -96,11 +96,11 @@ class L8Biome(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]],
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = CRS.from_epsg(3857),
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str],
+        crs: CRS | None = CRS.from_epsg(3857),
+        res: float | None = None,
         bands: Sequence[str] = all_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -217,7 +217,7 @@ class L8Biome(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/landcoverai.py b/torchgeo/datasets/landcoverai.py
index 8dec50b56..d240fa892 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/landcoverai.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/landcoverai.py
@@ -6,8 +6,9 @@ import abc
 import glob
 import hashlib
 import os
+from collections.abc import Callable
 from functools import lru_cache
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, cast
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -152,7 +153,7 @@ class LandCoverAIBase(Dataset[dict[str, Any]], abc.ABC):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
@@ -209,9 +210,9 @@ class LandCoverAIGeo(LandCoverAIBase, RasterDataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -299,7 +300,7 @@ class LandCoverAI(LandCoverAIBase, NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/landsat.py b/torchgeo/datasets/landsat.py
index b8e524905..503580cfd 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/landsat.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/landsat.py
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 """Landsat datasets."""
 
 import abc
-from collections.abc import Iterable, Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Sequence
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -59,11 +59,11 @@ class Landsat(RasterDataset, abc.ABC):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
-        bands: Optional[Sequence[str]] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
+        bands: Sequence[str] | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Dataset instance.
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ class Landsat(RasterDataset, abc.ABC):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/levircd.py b/torchgeo/datasets/levircd.py
index 76481fed1..b2f1891c0 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/levircd.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/levircd.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 import abc
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -29,14 +29,14 @@ class LEVIRCDBase(NonGeoDataset, abc.ABC):
     .. versionadded:: 0.6
     """
 
-    splits: Union[list[str], dict[str, dict[str, str]]]
+    splits: list[str] | dict[str, dict[str, str]]
     directories = ["A", "B", "label"]
 
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ class LEVIRCDBase(NonGeoDataset, abc.ABC):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/loveda.py b/torchgeo/datasets/loveda.py
index 9c7e2aaff..cff2d1af8 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/loveda.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/loveda.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ class LoveDA(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         scene: list[str] = ["urban", "rural"],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -256,7 +256,7 @@ class LoveDA(NonGeoDataset):
             md5=self.md5 if self.checksum else None,
         )
 
-    def plot(self, sample: dict[str, Tensor], suptitle: Optional[str] = None) -> Figure:
+    def plot(self, sample: dict[str, Tensor], suptitle: str | None = None) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
         Args:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/mapinwild.py b/torchgeo/datasets/mapinwild.py
index 68b601bb5..849d66485 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/mapinwild.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/mapinwild.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 import os
 import shutil
 from collections import defaultdict
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ class MapInWild(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         modality: list[str] = ["mask", "esa_wc", "viirs", "s2_summer"],
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ class MapInWild(NonGeoDataset):
             tensor = torch.from_numpy(array).float()
             return tensor
 
-    def _verify(self, url: str, md5: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+    def _verify(self, url: str, md5: str | None = None) -> None:
         """Verify the integrity of the dataset.
 
         Args:
@@ -258,7 +258,7 @@ class MapInWild(NonGeoDataset):
         if not url.endswith(".csv"):
             self._extract(url)
 
-    def _download(self, url: str, md5: Optional[str]) -> None:
+    def _download(self, url: str, md5: str | None) -> None:
         """Downloads a modality.
 
         Args:
@@ -330,7 +330,7 @@ class MapInWild(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/millionaid.py b/torchgeo/datasets/millionaid.py
index ed9a9c156..171ff6f3d 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/millionaid.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/millionaid.py
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 """Million-AID dataset."""
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -191,7 +192,7 @@ class MillionAID(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         task: str = "multi-class",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new MillionAID dataset instance.
@@ -332,7 +333,7 @@ class MillionAID(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/naip.py b/torchgeo/datasets/naip.py
index f70ff47a2..19f12a29f 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/naip.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/naip.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) dataset."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class NAIP(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/nasa_marine_debris.py b/torchgeo/datasets/nasa_marine_debris.py
index a1637f46e..4ebd0f6e3 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/nasa_marine_debris.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/nasa_marine_debris.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """NASA Marine Debris dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -66,9 +66,9 @@ class NASAMarineDebris(NonGeoDataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
         verbose: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ class NASAMarineDebris(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/nccm.py b/torchgeo/datasets/nccm.py
index f4728775b..48d33137d 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/nccm.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/nccm.py
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 """Northeastern China Crop Map Dataset."""
 
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -82,11 +82,11 @@ class NCCM(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
         years: list[int] = [2019],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -170,7 +170,7 @@ class NCCM(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/nlcd.py b/torchgeo/datasets/nlcd.py
index 6c1243538..7cb03b55d 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/nlcd.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/nlcd.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -107,12 +107,12 @@ class NLCD(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
         years: list[int] = [2019],
         classes: list[int] = list(cmap.keys()),
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ class NLCD(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/openbuildings.py b/torchgeo/datasets/openbuildings.py
index e05ea9322..988d194e8 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/openbuildings.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/openbuildings.py
@@ -7,8 +7,8 @@ import glob
 import json
 import os
 import sys
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import fiona
 import fiona.transform
@@ -206,10 +206,10 @@ class OpenBuildings(VectorDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
         res: float = 0.0001,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Dataset instance.
@@ -413,7 +413,7 @@ class OpenBuildings(VectorDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/oscd.py b/torchgeo/datasets/oscd.py
index eebe7348d..20f0a5c53 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/oscd.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/oscd.py
@@ -5,8 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -103,7 +102,7 @@ class OSCD(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         bands: Sequence[str] = all_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -164,7 +163,7 @@ class OSCD(NonGeoDataset):
         """
         return len(self.files)
 
-    def _load_files(self) -> list[dict[str, Union[str, Sequence[str]]]]:
+    def _load_files(self) -> list[dict[str, str | Sequence[str]]]:
         regions = []
         labels_root = os.path.join(
             self.root,
@@ -284,7 +283,7 @@ class OSCD(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
         alpha: float = 0.5,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/pastis.py b/torchgeo/datasets/pastis.py
index 84925a850..88d95884c 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/pastis.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/pastis.py
@@ -4,8 +4,7 @@
 """PASTIS dataset."""
 
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
 
 import fiona
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -132,7 +131,7 @@ class PASTIS(NonGeoDataset):
         folds: Sequence[int] = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5),
         bands: str = "s2",
         mode: str = "semantic",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -347,7 +346,7 @@ class PASTIS(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/patternnet.py b/torchgeo/datasets/patternnet.py
index 876f14dd5..ba445d671 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/patternnet.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/patternnet.py
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 """PatternNet dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -84,7 +85,7 @@ class PatternNet(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -145,7 +146,7 @@ class PatternNet(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/potsdam.py b/torchgeo/datasets/potsdam.py
index 782fd7ce8..b1b5f2154 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/potsdam.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/potsdam.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """Potsdam dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ class Potsdam2D(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Potsdam dataset instance.
@@ -240,7 +240,7 @@ class Potsdam2D(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
         alpha: float = 0.5,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/prisma.py b/torchgeo/datasets/prisma.py
index f6e70d4ff..442706578 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/prisma.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/prisma.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """PRISMA datasets."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ class PRISMA(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/reforestree.py b/torchgeo/datasets/reforestree.py
index 9ee8a82d6..c345c79e7 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/reforestree.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/reforestree.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.patches as patches
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ class ReforesTree(NonGeoDataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
         root: str = "data",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ class ReforesTree(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/resisc45.py b/torchgeo/datasets/resisc45.py
index 07fdfd272..babbf880d 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/resisc45.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/resisc45.py
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 """RESISC45 dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -112,7 +113,7 @@ class RESISC45(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -193,7 +194,7 @@ class RESISC45(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/rwanda_field_boundary.py b/torchgeo/datasets/rwanda_field_boundary.py
index 0d437134f..102067e5f 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/rwanda_field_boundary.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/rwanda_field_boundary.py
@@ -4,8 +4,7 @@
 """Rwanda Field Boundary Competition dataset."""
 
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -91,9 +90,9 @@ class RwandaFieldBoundary(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         bands: Sequence[str] = all_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new RwandaFieldBoundary instance.
@@ -258,7 +257,7 @@ class RwandaFieldBoundary(NonGeoDataset):
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
         time_step: int = 0,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/seasonet.py b/torchgeo/datasets/seasonet.py
index b01ad3cae..5f2918f74 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/seasonet.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/seasonet.py
@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@
 import os
 import random
 from collections.abc import Callable, Collection, Iterable
-from typing import Optional
 
 import matplotlib.patches as mpatches
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -219,7 +218,7 @@ class SeasoNet(NonGeoDataset):
         bands: Iterable[str] = all_bands,
         grids: Iterable[int] = [1, 2],
         concat_seasons: int = 1,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -405,7 +404,7 @@ class SeasoNet(NonGeoDataset):
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
         show_legend: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/seco.py b/torchgeo/datasets/seco.py
index 88a55fca5..52ffd1726 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/seco.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/seco.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import os
 import random
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ class SeasonalContrastS2(NonGeoDataset):
         version: str = "100k",
         seasons: int = 1,
         bands: list[str] = rgb_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ class SeasonalContrastS2(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/sen12ms.py b/torchgeo/datasets/sen12ms.py
index dc14fe3cc..7ff44d417 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/sen12ms.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/sen12ms.py
@@ -4,8 +4,7 @@
 """SEN12MS dataset."""
 
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -173,7 +172,7 @@ class SEN12MS(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         bands: Sequence[str] = BAND_SETS["all"],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SEN12MS dataset instance.
@@ -320,7 +319,7 @@ class SEN12MS(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/sentinel.py b/torchgeo/datasets/sentinel.py
index 8c4869e48..8cd7989f8 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/sentinel.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/sentinel.py
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 """Sentinel datasets."""
 
-from collections.abc import Iterable, Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Sequence
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -141,11 +141,11 @@ class Sentinel1(Sentinel):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, list[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
+        paths: str | list[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
         res: float = 10,
         bands: Sequence[str] = ["VV", "VH"],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Dataset instance.
@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ To create a dataset containing both, use:
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
@@ -297,11 +297,11 @@ class Sentinel2(Sentinel):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
         res: float = 10,
-        bands: Optional[Sequence[str]] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        bands: Sequence[str] | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Dataset instance.
@@ -333,7 +333,7 @@ class Sentinel2(Sentinel):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/skippd.py b/torchgeo/datasets/skippd.py
index d35897182..71ec3c4d6 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/skippd.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/skippd.py
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 """SKy Images and Photovoltaic Power Dataset (SKIPP'D)."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -74,7 +75,7 @@ class SKIPPD(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "trainval",
         task: str = "nowcast",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -133,7 +134,7 @@ class SKIPPD(NonGeoDataset):
 
         return num_datapoints
 
-    def __getitem__(self, index: int) -> dict[str, Union[str, Tensor]]:
+    def __getitem__(self, index: int) -> dict[str, str | Tensor]:
         """Return an index within the dataset.
 
         Args:
@@ -142,7 +143,7 @@ class SKIPPD(NonGeoDataset):
         Returns:
             data and label at that index
         """
-        sample: dict[str, Union[str, Tensor]] = {"image": self._load_image(index)}
+        sample: dict[str, str | Tensor] = {"image": self._load_image(index)}
         sample.update(self._load_features(index))
 
         if self.transforms is not None:
@@ -176,7 +177,7 @@ class SKIPPD(NonGeoDataset):
         tensor = torch.from_numpy(arr).to(torch.float32)
         return tensor
 
-    def _load_features(self, index: int) -> dict[str, Union[str, Tensor]]:
+    def _load_features(self, index: int) -> dict[str, str | Tensor]:
         """Load label.
 
         Args:
@@ -195,7 +196,7 @@ class SKIPPD(NonGeoDataset):
         path = os.path.join(self.root, f"times_{self.split}_{self.task}.npy")
         datestring = np.load(path, allow_pickle=True)[index].strftime(self.dateformat)
 
-        features: dict[str, Union[str, Tensor]] = {
+        features: dict[str, str | Tensor] = {
             "label": torch.tensor(label, dtype=torch.float32),
             "date": datestring,
         }
@@ -241,7 +242,7 @@ class SKIPPD(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/so2sat.py b/torchgeo/datasets/so2sat.py
index 321df4d4a..dafbb8863 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/so2sat.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/so2sat.py
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 """So2Sat dataset."""
 
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
+from typing import cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ class So2Sat(NonGeoDataset):
         version: str = "2",
         split: str = "train",
         bands: Sequence[str] = BAND_SETS["all"],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new So2Sat dataset instance.
@@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ class So2Sat(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/south_africa_crop_type.py b/torchgeo/datasets/south_africa_crop_type.py
index 8165c2396..7d81a4aa8 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/south_africa_crop_type.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/south_africa_crop_type.py
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 
 import os
 import re
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any, cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -98,11 +98,11 @@ class SouthAfricaCropType(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
         classes: list[int] = list(cmap.keys()),
         bands: list[str] = all_bands,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new South Africa Crop Type dataset instance.
 
@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ class SouthAfricaCropType(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/south_america_soybean.py b/torchgeo/datasets/south_america_soybean.py
index e1d1e952c..131841d77 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/south_america_soybean.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/south_america_soybean.py
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 """South America Soybean Dataset."""
 
-from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 from matplotlib.figure import Figure
@@ -71,11 +71,11 @@ class SouthAmericaSoybean(RasterDataset):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        paths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = "data",
-        crs: Optional[CRS] = None,
-        res: Optional[float] = None,
+        paths: str | Iterable[str] = "data",
+        crs: CRS | None = None,
+        res: float | None = None,
         years: list[int] = [2021],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         cache: bool = True,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ class SouthAmericaSoybean(RasterDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/spacenet.py b/torchgeo/datasets/spacenet.py
index c6780e197..111367dbd 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/spacenet.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/spacenet.py
@@ -9,7 +9,8 @@ import glob
 import math
 import os
 import re
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import fiona
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -81,9 +82,9 @@ class SpaceNet(NonGeoDataset, abc.ABC):
         root: str,
         image: str,
         collections: list[str] = [],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SpaceNet Dataset instance.
@@ -274,7 +275,7 @@ class SpaceNet(NonGeoDataset, abc.ABC):
 
         return to_be_downloaded
 
-    def _download(self, collections: list[str], api_key: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+    def _download(self, collections: list[str], api_key: str | None = None) -> None:
         """Download the dataset and extract it.
 
         Args:
@@ -299,7 +300,7 @@ class SpaceNet(NonGeoDataset, abc.ABC):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
@@ -398,9 +399,9 @@ class SpaceNet1(SpaceNet):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         image: str = "rgb",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SpaceNet 1 Dataset instance.
@@ -514,9 +515,9 @@ class SpaceNet2(SpaceNet):
         root: str = "data",
         image: str = "PS-RGB",
         collections: list[str] = [],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SpaceNet 2 Dataset instance.
@@ -633,11 +634,11 @@ class SpaceNet3(SpaceNet):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         image: str = "PS-RGB",
-        speed_mask: Optional[bool] = False,
+        speed_mask: bool | None = False,
         collections: list[str] = [],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SpaceNet 3 Dataset instance.
@@ -733,7 +734,7 @@ class SpaceNet3(SpaceNet):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
@@ -884,9 +885,9 @@ class SpaceNet4(SpaceNet):
         root: str = "data",
         image: str = "PS-RGBNIR",
         angles: list[str] = [],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SpaceNet 4 Dataset instance.
@@ -1051,11 +1052,11 @@ class SpaceNet5(SpaceNet3):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         image: str = "PS-RGB",
-        speed_mask: Optional[bool] = False,
+        speed_mask: bool | None = False,
         collections: list[str] = [],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SpaceNet 5 Dataset instance.
@@ -1183,9 +1184,9 @@ class SpaceNet6(SpaceNet):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         image: str = "PS-RGB",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SpaceNet 6 Dataset instance.
 
@@ -1212,7 +1213,7 @@ class SpaceNet6(SpaceNet):
 
         self.files = self._load_files(os.path.join(root, self.dataset_id))
 
-    def __download(self, api_key: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+    def __download(self, api_key: str | None = None) -> None:
         """Download the dataset and extract it.
 
         Args:
@@ -1281,9 +1282,9 @@ class SpaceNet7(SpaceNet):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SpaceNet 7 Dataset instance.
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/splits.py b/torchgeo/datasets/splits.py
index 0164f5438..af02d0cc1 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/splits.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/splits.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ from collections.abc import Sequence
 from copy import deepcopy
 from itertools import accumulate
 from math import floor, isclose
-from typing import Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import cast
 
 from rtree.index import Index, Property
 from torch import Generator, default_generator, randint, randperm
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ def _fractions_to_lengths(fractions: Sequence[float], total: int) -> Sequence[in
 def random_bbox_assignment(
     dataset: GeoDataset,
     lengths: Sequence[float],
-    generator: Optional[Generator] = default_generator,
+    generator: Generator | None = default_generator,
 ) -> list[GeoDataset]:
     """Split a GeoDataset randomly assigning its index's BoundingBoxes.
 
@@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ def random_bbox_assignment(
 def random_bbox_splitting(
     dataset: GeoDataset,
     fractions: Sequence[float],
-    generator: Optional[Generator] = default_generator,
+    generator: Generator | None = default_generator,
 ) -> list[GeoDataset]:
     """Split a GeoDataset randomly splitting its index's BoundingBoxes.
 
@@ -172,7 +172,7 @@ def random_grid_cell_assignment(
     dataset: GeoDataset,
     fractions: Sequence[float],
     grid_size: int = 6,
-    generator: Optional[Generator] = default_generator,
+    generator: Generator | None = default_generator,
 ) -> list[GeoDataset]:
     """Overlays a grid over a GeoDataset and randomly assigns cells to new GeoDatasets.
 
@@ -289,7 +289,7 @@ def roi_split(dataset: GeoDataset, rois: Sequence[BoundingBox]) -> list[GeoDatas
 
 
 def time_series_split(
-    dataset: GeoDataset, lengths: Sequence[Union[float, tuple[float, float]]]
+    dataset: GeoDataset, lengths: Sequence[float | tuple[float, float]]
 ) -> list[GeoDataset]:
     """Split a GeoDataset on its time dimension to create non-overlapping GeoDatasets.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/ssl4eo.py b/torchgeo/datasets/ssl4eo.py
index 7b862030e..39ddbc187 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/ssl4eo.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/ssl4eo.py
@@ -6,7 +6,8 @@
 import glob
 import os
 import random
-from typing import Callable, Optional, TypedDict
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import TypedDict
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -163,7 +164,7 @@ class SSL4EOL(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "oli_sr",
         seasons: int = 1,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -285,7 +286,7 @@ class SSL4EOL(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
@@ -405,7 +406,7 @@ class SSL4EOS12(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "s2c",
         seasons: int = 1,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SSL4EOS12 instance.
@@ -500,7 +501,7 @@ class SSL4EOS12(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/ssl4eo_benchmark.py b/torchgeo/datasets/ssl4eo_benchmark.py
index d7d2444eb..d37097928 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/ssl4eo_benchmark.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/ssl4eo_benchmark.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -110,8 +110,8 @@ class SSL4EOLBenchmark(NonGeoDataset):
         sensor: str = "oli_sr",
         product: str = "cdl",
         split: str = "train",
-        classes: Optional[list[int]] = None,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        classes: list[int] | None = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -327,7 +327,7 @@ class SSL4EOLBenchmark(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/sustainbench_crop_yield.py b/torchgeo/datasets/sustainbench_crop_yield.py
index eed76054e..03cdf06b3 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/sustainbench_crop_yield.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/sustainbench_crop_yield.py
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 """SustainBench Crop Yield dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -60,7 +61,7 @@ class SustainBenchCropYield(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         countries: list[str] = ["usa"],
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -195,7 +196,7 @@ class SustainBenchCropYield(NonGeoDataset):
         sample: dict[str, Any],
         band_idx: int = 0,
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/ucmerced.py b/torchgeo/datasets/ucmerced.py
index 05ac17599..b8be66e45 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/ucmerced.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/ucmerced.py
@@ -3,7 +3,8 @@
 
 """UC Merced dataset."""
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional, cast
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import cast
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -85,7 +86,7 @@ class UCMerced(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -190,7 +191,7 @@ class UCMerced(NonGeoClassificationDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/usavars.py b/torchgeo/datasets/usavars.py
index a3156ab73..5b27c2e86 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/usavars.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/usavars.py
@@ -5,8 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -89,7 +88,7 @@ class USAVars(NonGeoDataset):
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
         labels: Sequence[str] = ALL_LABELS,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -230,7 +229,7 @@ class USAVars(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_labels: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/vaihingen.py b/torchgeo/datasets/vaihingen.py
index 59ecfcda6..913dad794 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/vaihingen.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/vaihingen.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """Vaihingen dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ class Vaihingen2D(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Vaihingen2D dataset instance.
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ class Vaihingen2D(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
         alpha: float = 0.5,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/vhr10.py b/torchgeo/datasets/vhr10.py
index 43756df71..93eabdf72 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/vhr10.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/vhr10.py
@@ -4,7 +4,8 @@
 """NWPU VHR-10 dataset."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -183,7 +184,7 @@ class VHR10(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "positive",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -364,8 +365,8 @@ class VHR10(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
-        show_feats: Optional[str] = "both",
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
+        show_feats: str | None = "both",
         box_alpha: float = 0.7,
         mask_alpha: float = 0.7,
     ) -> Figure:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/western_usa_live_fuel_moisture.py b/torchgeo/datasets/western_usa_live_fuel_moisture.py
index d782cd2b5..ec41088d3 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/western_usa_live_fuel_moisture.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/western_usa_live_fuel_moisture.py
@@ -6,7 +6,8 @@
 import glob
 import json
 import os
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import pandas as pd
 import torch
@@ -204,9 +205,9 @@ class WesternUSALiveFuelMoisture(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         input_features: list[str] = all_variable_names,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], dict[str, Any]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
-        api_key: Optional[str] = None,
+        api_key: str | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Western USA Live Fuel Moisture Dataset.
@@ -329,7 +330,7 @@ class WesternUSALiveFuelMoisture(NonGeoDataset):
         pathname = os.path.join(self.root, self.collection_id) + ".tar.gz"
         extract_archive(pathname, self.root)
 
-    def _download(self, api_key: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+    def _download(self, api_key: str | None = None) -> None:
         """Download the dataset and extract it.
 
         Args:
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/xview.py b/torchgeo/datasets/xview.py
index 82bacc2be..7df948af3 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/xview.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/xview.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import glob
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ class XView2(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         split: str = "train",
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new xView2 dataset instance.
@@ -225,7 +225,7 @@ class XView2(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
         alpha: float = 0.5,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
diff --git a/torchgeo/datasets/zuericrop.py b/torchgeo/datasets/zuericrop.py
index f0fb1410f..d1f502973 100644
--- a/torchgeo/datasets/zuericrop.py
+++ b/torchgeo/datasets/zuericrop.py
@@ -4,8 +4,7 @@
 """ZueriCrop dataset."""
 
 import os
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Callable, Optional
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -71,7 +70,7 @@ class ZueriCrop(NonGeoDataset):
         self,
         root: str = "data",
         bands: Sequence[str] = band_names,
-        transforms: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]]] = None,
+        transforms: Callable[[dict[str, Tensor]], dict[str, Tensor]] | None = None,
         download: bool = False,
         checksum: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
@@ -264,7 +263,7 @@ class ZueriCrop(NonGeoDataset):
         sample: dict[str, Tensor],
         time_step: int = 0,
         show_titles: bool = True,
-        suptitle: Optional[str] = None,
+        suptitle: str | None = None,
     ) -> Figure:
         """Plot a sample from the dataset.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/models/api.py b/torchgeo/models/api.py
index f2ab4a5d9..50c138a81 100644
--- a/torchgeo/models/api.py
+++ b/torchgeo/models/api.py
@@ -10,7 +10,8 @@ See the following references for design details:
 * https://github.com/pytorch/vision/blob/main/torchvision/models/_api.py
 """  # noqa: E501
 
-from typing import Any, Callable, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable
+from typing import Any
 
 import torch.nn as nn
 from torchvision.models._api import WeightsEnum
@@ -55,7 +56,7 @@ def get_model(name: str, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> nn.Module:
     return model
 
 
-def get_model_weights(name: Union[Callable[..., nn.Module], str]) -> WeightsEnum:
+def get_model_weights(name: Callable[..., nn.Module] | str) -> WeightsEnum:
     """Get the weights enum class associated with a given model.
 
     .. versionadded:: 0.4
diff --git a/torchgeo/models/dofa.py b/torchgeo/models/dofa.py
index 0e12f27ac..bb6c04377 100644
--- a/torchgeo/models/dofa.py
+++ b/torchgeo/models/dofa.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """Dynamic One-For-All (DOFA) models."""
 
 from functools import partial
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -441,7 +441,7 @@ def dofa_small_patch16_224(**kwargs: Any) -> DOFA:
 
 
 def dofa_base_patch16_224(
-    weights: Optional[DOFABase16_Weights] = None, **kwargs: Any
+    weights: DOFABase16_Weights | None = None, **kwargs: Any
 ) -> DOFA:
     """Dynamic One-For-All (DOFA) base patch size 16 model.
 
@@ -477,7 +477,7 @@ def dofa_base_patch16_224(
 
 
 def dofa_large_patch16_224(
-    weights: Optional[DOFALarge16_Weights] = None, **kwargs: Any
+    weights: DOFALarge16_Weights | None = None, **kwargs: Any
 ) -> DOFA:
     """Dynamic One-For-All (DOFA) large patch size 16 model.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/models/fcsiam.py b/torchgeo/models/fcsiam.py
index 4d95a0edd..be23e565b 100644
--- a/torchgeo/models/fcsiam.py
+++ b/torchgeo/models/fcsiam.py
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 """Fully convolutional change detection (FCCD) implementations."""
 
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
+from typing import Any
 
 import segmentation_models_pytorch as smp
 import torch
@@ -25,13 +25,13 @@ class FCSiamConc(SegmentationModel):  # type: ignore[misc]
         self,
         encoder_name: str = "resnet34",
         encoder_depth: int = 5,
-        encoder_weights: Optional[str] = "imagenet",
+        encoder_weights: str | None = "imagenet",
         decoder_use_batchnorm: bool = True,
         decoder_channels: Sequence[int] = (256, 128, 64, 32, 16),
-        decoder_attention_type: Optional[str] = None,
+        decoder_attention_type: str | None = None,
         in_channels: int = 3,
         classes: int = 1,
-        activation: Optional[Union[str, Callable[[Tensor], Tensor]]] = None,
+        activation: str | Callable[[Tensor], Tensor] | None = None,
     ):
         """Initialize a new FCSiamConc model.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/models/rcf.py b/torchgeo/models/rcf.py
index 59f42223c..477624df0 100644
--- a/torchgeo/models/rcf.py
+++ b/torchgeo/models/rcf.py
@@ -3,8 +3,6 @@
 
 """Implementation of a random convolutional feature projection model."""
 
-from typing import Optional
-
 import numpy as np
 import torch
 import torch.nn.functional as F
@@ -43,9 +41,9 @@ class RCF(Module):
         features: int = 16,
         kernel_size: int = 3,
         bias: float = -1.0,
-        seed: Optional[int] = None,
+        seed: int | None = None,
         mode: str = "gaussian",
-        dataset: Optional[NonGeoDataset] = None,
+        dataset: NonGeoDataset | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initializes the RCF model.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/models/resnet.py b/torchgeo/models/resnet.py
index 70c058711..e78c9394c 100644
--- a/torchgeo/models/resnet.py
+++ b/torchgeo/models/resnet.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Pre-trained ResNet models."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import timm
@@ -463,7 +463,7 @@ class ResNet50_Weights(WeightsEnum):  # type: ignore[misc]
 
 
 def resnet18(
-    weights: Optional[ResNet18_Weights] = None, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any
+    weights: ResNet18_Weights | None = None, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any
 ) -> ResNet:
     """ResNet-18 model.
 
@@ -497,7 +497,7 @@ def resnet18(
 
 
 def resnet50(
-    weights: Optional[ResNet50_Weights] = None, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any
+    weights: ResNet50_Weights | None = None, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any
 ) -> ResNet:
     """ResNet-50 model.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/models/swin.py b/torchgeo/models/swin.py
index 66dd0ebc0..b5c38acce 100644
--- a/torchgeo/models/swin.py
+++ b/torchgeo/models/swin.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Pre-trained Swin v2 Transformer models."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -136,7 +136,7 @@ class Swin_V2_B_Weights(WeightsEnum):  # type: ignore[misc]
 
 
 def swin_v2_b(
-    weights: Optional[Swin_V2_B_Weights] = None, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any
+    weights: Swin_V2_B_Weights | None = None, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any
 ) -> SwinTransformer:
     """Swin Transformer v2 base model.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/models/vit.py b/torchgeo/models/vit.py
index 85c2e4288..2c7e37fc2 100644
--- a/torchgeo/models/vit.py
+++ b/torchgeo/models/vit.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """Pre-trained Vision Transformer models."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import timm
@@ -205,7 +205,7 @@ class ViTSmall16_Weights(WeightsEnum):  # type: ignore[misc]
 
 
 def vit_small_patch16_224(
-    weights: Optional[ViTSmall16_Weights] = None, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any
+    weights: ViTSmall16_Weights | None = None, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any
 ) -> VisionTransformer:
     """Vision Transform (ViT) small patch size 16 model.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/samplers/batch.py b/torchgeo/samplers/batch.py
index ef9bb05f1..22726f74b 100644
--- a/torchgeo/samplers/batch.py
+++ b/torchgeo/samplers/batch.py
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@
 
 import abc
 from collections.abc import Iterator
-from typing import Optional, Union
 
 import torch
 from rtree.index import Index, Property
@@ -25,7 +24,7 @@ class BatchGeoSampler(Sampler[list[BoundingBox]], abc.ABC):
     longitude, height, width, projection, coordinate system, and time.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, dataset: GeoDataset, roi: Optional[BoundingBox] = None) -> None:
+    def __init__(self, dataset: GeoDataset, roi: BoundingBox | None = None) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Sampler instance.
 
         Args:
@@ -66,10 +65,10 @@ class RandomBatchGeoSampler(BatchGeoSampler):
     def __init__(
         self,
         dataset: GeoDataset,
-        size: Union[tuple[float, float], float],
+        size: tuple[float, float] | float,
         batch_size: int,
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
-        roi: Optional[BoundingBox] = None,
+        length: int | None = None,
+        roi: BoundingBox | None = None,
         units: Units = Units.PIXELS,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Sampler instance.
diff --git a/torchgeo/samplers/single.py b/torchgeo/samplers/single.py
index 360798b58..094142cb6 100644
--- a/torchgeo/samplers/single.py
+++ b/torchgeo/samplers/single.py
@@ -4,8 +4,7 @@
 """TorchGeo samplers."""
 
 import abc
-from collections.abc import Iterable, Iterator
-from typing import Callable, Optional, Union
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Iterator
 
 import torch
 from rtree.index import Index, Property
@@ -25,7 +24,7 @@ class GeoSampler(Sampler[BoundingBox], abc.ABC):
     longitude, height, width, projection, coordinate system, and time.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, dataset: GeoDataset, roi: Optional[BoundingBox] = None) -> None:
+    def __init__(self, dataset: GeoDataset, roi: BoundingBox | None = None) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Sampler instance.
 
         Args:
@@ -69,9 +68,9 @@ class RandomGeoSampler(GeoSampler):
     def __init__(
         self,
         dataset: GeoDataset,
-        size: Union[tuple[float, float], float],
-        length: Optional[int] = None,
-        roi: Optional[BoundingBox] = None,
+        size: tuple[float, float] | float,
+        length: int | None = None,
+        roi: BoundingBox | None = None,
         units: Units = Units.PIXELS,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Sampler instance.
@@ -174,9 +173,9 @@ class GridGeoSampler(GeoSampler):
     def __init__(
         self,
         dataset: GeoDataset,
-        size: Union[tuple[float, float], float],
-        stride: Union[tuple[float, float], float],
-        roi: Optional[BoundingBox] = None,
+        size: tuple[float, float] | float,
+        stride: tuple[float, float] | float,
+        roi: BoundingBox | None = None,
         units: Units = Units.PIXELS,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Sampler instance.
@@ -271,10 +270,7 @@ class PreChippedGeoSampler(GeoSampler):
     """
 
     def __init__(
-        self,
-        dataset: GeoDataset,
-        roi: Optional[BoundingBox] = None,
-        shuffle: bool = False,
+        self, dataset: GeoDataset, roi: BoundingBox | None = None, shuffle: bool = False
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new Sampler instance.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/samplers/utils.py b/torchgeo/samplers/utils.py
index 329f3677e..53061f579 100644
--- a/torchgeo/samplers/utils.py
+++ b/torchgeo/samplers/utils.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """Common sampler utilities."""
 
 import math
-from typing import Optional, Union, overload
+from typing import overload
 
 import torch
 
@@ -12,14 +12,14 @@ from ..datasets import BoundingBox
 
 
 @overload
-def _to_tuple(value: Union[tuple[int, int], int]) -> tuple[int, int]: ...
+def _to_tuple(value: tuple[int, int] | int) -> tuple[int, int]: ...
 
 
 @overload
-def _to_tuple(value: Union[tuple[float, float], float]) -> tuple[float, float]: ...
+def _to_tuple(value: tuple[float, float] | float) -> tuple[float, float]: ...
 
 
-def _to_tuple(value: Union[tuple[float, float], float]) -> tuple[float, float]:
+def _to_tuple(value: tuple[float, float] | float) -> tuple[float, float]:
     """Convert value to a tuple if it is not already a tuple.
 
     Args:
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ def _to_tuple(value: Union[tuple[float, float], float]) -> tuple[float, float]:
 
 
 def get_random_bounding_box(
-    bounds: BoundingBox, size: Union[tuple[float, float], float], res: float
+    bounds: BoundingBox, size: tuple[float, float] | float, res: float
 ) -> BoundingBox:
     """Returns a random bounding box within a given bounding box.
 
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ def get_random_bounding_box(
 def tile_to_chips(
     bounds: BoundingBox,
     size: tuple[float, float],
-    stride: Optional[tuple[float, float]] = None,
+    stride: tuple[float, float] | None = None,
 ) -> tuple[int, int]:
     r"""Compute number of :term:`chips <chip>` that can be sampled from a :term:`tile`.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/base.py b/torchgeo/trainers/base.py
index 878034a77..338961e3c 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/base.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/base.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
 from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import lightning
 from lightning.pytorch import LightningModule
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ class BaseTask(LightningModule, ABC):
     #: Whether the goal is to minimize or maximize the performance metric to monitor.
     mode = "min"
 
-    def __init__(self, ignore: Optional[Union[Sequence[str], str]] = None) -> None:
+    def __init__(self, ignore: Sequence[str] | str | None = None) -> None:
         """Initialize a new BaseTask instance.
 
         Args:
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/byol.py b/torchgeo/trainers/byol.py
index 37258fb63..a46ad2dce 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/byol.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/byol.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """BYOL trainer for self-supervised learning (SSL)."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import timm
 import torch
@@ -148,8 +148,8 @@ class BackboneWrapper(nn.Module):
         self.hidden_size = hidden_size
         self.layer = layer
 
-        self._projector: Optional[nn.Module] = None
-        self._projector_dim: Optional[int] = None
+        self._projector: nn.Module | None = None
+        self._projector_dim: int | None = None
         self._encoded = torch.empty(0)
         self._register_hook()
 
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ class BYOL(nn.Module):
         in_channels: int = 4,
         projection_size: int = 256,
         hidden_size: int = 4096,
-        augment_fn: Optional[nn.Module] = None,
+        augment_fn: nn.Module | None = None,
         beta: float = 0.99,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
@@ -297,7 +297,7 @@ class BYOLTask(BaseTask):
     def __init__(
         self,
         model: str = "resnet50",
-        weights: Optional[Union[WeightsEnum, str, bool]] = None,
+        weights: WeightsEnum | str | bool | None = None,
         in_channels: int = 3,
         lr: float = 1e-3,
         patience: int = 10,
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/classification.py b/torchgeo/trainers/classification.py
index 3aa06be84..9f6c828b6 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/classification.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/classification.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """Trainers for image classification."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import timm
@@ -35,11 +35,11 @@ class ClassificationTask(BaseTask):
     def __init__(
         self,
         model: str = "resnet50",
-        weights: Optional[Union[WeightsEnum, str, bool]] = None,
+        weights: WeightsEnum | str | bool | None = None,
         in_channels: int = 3,
         num_classes: int = 1000,
         loss: str = "ce",
-        class_weights: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+        class_weights: Tensor | None = None,
         lr: float = 1e-3,
         patience: int = 10,
         freeze_backbone: bool = False,
@@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ class ClassificationTask(BaseTask):
                 batch[key] = batch[key].cpu()
             sample = unbind_samples(batch)[0]
 
-            fig: Optional[Figure] = None
+            fig: Figure | None = None
             try:
                 fig = datamodule.plot(sample)
             except RGBBandsMissingError:
@@ -364,7 +364,7 @@ class MultiLabelClassificationTask(ClassificationTask):
                 batch[key] = batch[key].cpu()
             sample = unbind_samples(batch)[0]
 
-            fig: Optional[Figure] = None
+            fig: Figure | None = None
             try:
                 fig = datamodule.plot(sample)
             except RGBBandsMissingError:
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/detection.py b/torchgeo/trainers/detection.py
index ee44405dd..c74fd7156 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/detection.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/detection.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """Trainers for object detection."""
 
 from functools import partial
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import torch
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ class ObjectDetectionTask(BaseTask):
         self,
         model: str = "faster-rcnn",
         backbone: str = "resnet50",
-        weights: Optional[bool] = None,
+        weights: bool | None = None,
         in_channels: int = 3,
         num_classes: int = 1000,
         trainable_layers: int = 3,
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ class ObjectDetectionTask(BaseTask):
         """
         backbone: str = self.hparams["backbone"]
         model: str = self.hparams["model"]
-        weights: Optional[bool] = self.hparams["weights"]
+        weights: bool | None = self.hparams["weights"]
         num_classes: int = self.hparams["num_classes"]
         freeze_backbone: bool = self.hparams["freeze_backbone"]
 
@@ -289,7 +289,7 @@ class ObjectDetectionTask(BaseTask):
                 sample["image"] *= 255
                 sample["image"] = sample["image"].to(torch.uint8)
 
-            fig: Optional[Figure] = None
+            fig: Figure | None = None
             try:
                 fig = datamodule.plot(sample)
             except RGBBandsMissingError:
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/moco.py b/torchgeo/trainers/moco.py
index 8b1e59cf3..e06aecdf7 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/moco.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/moco.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 import os
 import warnings
 from collections.abc import Sequence
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import lightning
@@ -141,7 +141,7 @@ class MoCoTask(BaseTask):
     def __init__(
         self,
         model: str = "resnet50",
-        weights: Optional[Union[WeightsEnum, str, bool]] = None,
+        weights: WeightsEnum | str | bool | None = None,
         in_channels: int = 3,
         version: int = 3,
         layers: int = 3,
@@ -156,9 +156,9 @@ class MoCoTask(BaseTask):
         moco_momentum: float = 0.99,
         gather_distributed: bool = False,
         size: int = 224,
-        grayscale_weights: Optional[Tensor] = None,
-        augmentation1: Optional[nn.Module] = None,
-        augmentation2: Optional[nn.Module] = None,
+        grayscale_weights: Tensor | None = None,
+        augmentation1: nn.Module | None = None,
+        augmentation2: nn.Module | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new MoCoTask instance.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/regression.py b/torchgeo/trainers/regression.py
index 7ab19d215..4fb3a9209 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/regression.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/regression.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """Trainers for regression."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import segmentation_models_pytorch as smp
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ class RegressionTask(BaseTask):
         self,
         model: str = "resnet50",
         backbone: str = "resnet50",
-        weights: Optional[Union[WeightsEnum, str, bool]] = None,
+        weights: WeightsEnum | str | bool | None = None,
         in_channels: int = 3,
         num_outputs: int = 1,
         num_filters: int = 3,
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ class RegressionTask(BaseTask):
                 batch[key] = batch[key].cpu()
             sample = unbind_samples(batch)[0]
 
-            fig: Optional[Figure] = None
+            fig: Figure | None = None
             try:
                 fig = datamodule.plot(sample)
             except RGBBandsMissingError:
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/segmentation.py b/torchgeo/trainers/segmentation.py
index 1249f3f28..502826db3 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/segmentation.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/segmentation.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 """Trainers for semantic segmentation."""
 
 import os
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import segmentation_models_pytorch as smp
@@ -28,13 +28,13 @@ class SemanticSegmentationTask(BaseTask):
         self,
         model: str = "unet",
         backbone: str = "resnet50",
-        weights: Optional[Union[WeightsEnum, str, bool]] = None,
+        weights: WeightsEnum | str | bool | None = None,
         in_channels: int = 3,
         num_classes: int = 1000,
         num_filters: int = 3,
         loss: str = "ce",
-        class_weights: Optional[Tensor] = None,
-        ignore_index: Optional[int] = None,
+        class_weights: Tensor | None = None,
+        ignore_index: int | None = None,
         lr: float = 1e-3,
         patience: int = 10,
         freeze_backbone: bool = False,
@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ class SemanticSegmentationTask(BaseTask):
              for balanced performance assessment across imbalanced classes.
         """
         num_classes: int = self.hparams["num_classes"]
-        ignore_index: Optional[int] = self.hparams["ignore_index"]
+        ignore_index: int | None = self.hparams["ignore_index"]
         metrics = MetricCollection(
             [
                 MulticlassAccuracy(
@@ -268,7 +268,7 @@ class SemanticSegmentationTask(BaseTask):
                 batch[key] = batch[key].cpu()
             sample = unbind_samples(batch)[0]
 
-            fig: Optional[Figure] = None
+            fig: Figure | None = None
             try:
                 fig = datamodule.plot(sample)
             except RGBBandsMissingError:
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/simclr.py b/torchgeo/trainers/simclr.py
index b753dabcb..44e517731 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/simclr.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/simclr.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import os
 import warnings
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import lightning
@@ -73,20 +73,20 @@ class SimCLRTask(BaseTask):
     def __init__(
         self,
         model: str = "resnet50",
-        weights: Optional[Union[WeightsEnum, str, bool]] = None,
+        weights: WeightsEnum | str | bool | None = None,
         in_channels: int = 3,
         version: int = 2,
         layers: int = 3,
-        hidden_dim: Optional[int] = None,
-        output_dim: Optional[int] = None,
+        hidden_dim: int | None = None,
+        output_dim: int | None = None,
         lr: float = 4.8,
         weight_decay: float = 1e-4,
         temperature: float = 0.07,
         memory_bank_size: int = 64000,
         gather_distributed: bool = False,
         size: int = 224,
-        grayscale_weights: Optional[Tensor] = None,
-        augmentations: Optional[nn.Module] = None,
+        grayscale_weights: Tensor | None = None,
+        augmentations: nn.Module | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new SimCLRTask instance.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/trainers/utils.py b/torchgeo/trainers/utils.py
index b5cd8f1e9..7332cd1d1 100644
--- a/torchgeo/trainers/utils.py
+++ b/torchgeo/trainers/utils.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 import warnings
 from collections import OrderedDict
-from typing import Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import cast
 
 import torch
 import torch.nn as nn
@@ -127,8 +127,8 @@ def reinit_initial_conv_layer(
     layer: Conv2d,
     new_in_channels: int,
     keep_rgb_weights: bool,
-    new_stride: Optional[Union[int, tuple[int, int]]] = None,
-    new_padding: Optional[Union[str, Union[int, tuple[int, int]]]] = None,
+    new_stride: int | tuple[int, int] | None = None,
+    new_padding: str | int | tuple[int, int] | None = None,
 ) -> Conv2d:
     """Clones a Conv2d layer while optionally retaining some of the original weights.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/transforms/color.py b/torchgeo/transforms/color.py
index 5459fc2f8..efc7055fe 100644
--- a/torchgeo/transforms/color.py
+++ b/torchgeo/transforms/color.py
@@ -3,8 +3,6 @@
 
 """TorchGeo color transforms."""
 
-from typing import Optional
-
 from kornia.augmentation import IntensityAugmentationBase2D
 from torch import Tensor
 
@@ -57,7 +55,7 @@ class RandomGrayscale(IntensityAugmentationBase2D):
         input: Tensor,
         params: dict[str, Tensor],
         flags: dict[str, Tensor],
-        transform: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+        transform: Tensor | None = None,
     ) -> Tensor:
         """Apply the transform.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/transforms/indices.py b/torchgeo/transforms/indices.py
index eb72afff4..3f52fd796 100644
--- a/torchgeo/transforms/indices.py
+++ b/torchgeo/transforms/indices.py
@@ -8,8 +8,6 @@ For more information about indices see the following references:
 - https://github.com/awesome-spectral-indices/awesome-spectral-indices
 """
 
-from typing import Optional
-
 import torch
 from kornia.augmentation import IntensityAugmentationBase2D
 from torch import Tensor
@@ -44,7 +42,7 @@ class AppendNormalizedDifferenceIndex(IntensityAugmentationBase2D):
         input: Tensor,
         params: dict[str, Tensor],
         flags: dict[str, int],
-        transform: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+        transform: Tensor | None = None,
     ) -> Tensor:
         """Apply the transform.
 
@@ -319,7 +317,7 @@ class AppendTriBandNormalizedDifferenceIndex(IntensityAugmentationBase2D):
         input: Tensor,
         params: dict[str, Tensor],
         flags: dict[str, int],
-        transform: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+        transform: Tensor | None = None,
     ) -> Tensor:
         """Apply the transform.
 
diff --git a/torchgeo/transforms/transforms.py b/torchgeo/transforms/transforms.py
index 19239c26b..ca95461f7 100644
--- a/torchgeo/transforms/transforms.py
+++ b/torchgeo/transforms/transforms.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 
 """TorchGeo transforms."""
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 
 import kornia.augmentation as K
 import torch
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ class AugmentationSequential(Module):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        *args: Union[K.base._AugmentationBase, K.ImageSequential, Lambda],
+        *args: K.base._AugmentationBase | K.ImageSequential | Lambda,
         data_keys: list[str],
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ class AugmentationSequential(Module):
             batch["masks"] = rearrange(batch["masks"], "c h w -> () c h w")
 
         inputs = [batch[k] for k in self.data_keys]
-        outputs_list: Union[Tensor, list[Tensor]] = self.augs(*inputs)
+        outputs_list: Tensor | list[Tensor] = self.augs(*inputs)
         outputs_list = (
             outputs_list if isinstance(outputs_list, list) else [outputs_list]
         )
@@ -147,7 +147,7 @@ class _RandomNCrop(K.GeometricAugmentationBase2D):
         input: Tensor,
         params: dict[str, Tensor],
         flags: dict[str, Any],
-        transform: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+        transform: Tensor | None = None,
     ) -> Tensor:
         """Apply the transform.
 
@@ -169,7 +169,7 @@ class _RandomNCrop(K.GeometricAugmentationBase2D):
 class _NCropGenerator(K.random_generator.CropGenerator):
     """Generate N random crops."""
 
-    def __init__(self, size: Union[tuple[int, int], Tensor], num: int) -> None:
+    def __init__(self, size: tuple[int, int] | Tensor, num: int) -> None:
         """Initialize a new _NCropGenerator instance.
 
         Args:
@@ -207,9 +207,9 @@ class _ExtractPatches(K.GeometricAugmentationBase2D):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        window_size: Union[int, tuple[int, int]],
-        stride: Optional[Union[int, tuple[int, int]]] = None,
-        padding: Optional[Union[int, tuple[int, int]]] = 0,
+        window_size: int | tuple[int, int],
+        stride: int | tuple[int, int] | None = None,
+        padding: int | tuple[int, int] | None = 0,
         keepdim: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
         """Initialize a new _ExtractPatches instance.
@@ -250,7 +250,7 @@ class _ExtractPatches(K.GeometricAugmentationBase2D):
         input: Tensor,
         params: dict[str, Tensor],
         flags: dict[str, Any],
-        transform: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+        transform: Tensor | None = None,
     ) -> Tensor:
         """Apply the transform.